| Lab Section | Serology |
| Test Description | Serum neutralization test for the detection of antibodies to the equine arteritis virus |
| Species | Equine |
SUBMISSION DETAILS
| Sample Type | Serum (1 ml) |
| Container | Red top tube or other sterile container without additive |
| Special Submission Instructions |
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| Turnaround time | 4-7 business days |
| Test Name | Section | Price |
| Abortion Panel | Anatomic Pathology | $200.00 |
| Abortion Screen | Bacteriology | $51.00 |
| ACTH Stimulation | Clinical Pathology | $55.00 |
| Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time | Clinical Pathology | $27.00 |
| Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (APTT) / Prothrombin Time (PT) Combo | Clinical Pathology | $48.00 |
| Aflatoxin M1 in Milk and Liver | Toxicology | $102.00 |
| Alanine aminotransferase | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Albumin | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Alkaline phosphatase | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Aerobic Bacterial Culture, Isolation and Identification (excluding blood samples) | Bacteriology | $31.00 |
| Anaerobic Bacterial Culture | Bacteriology | $31.00 |
| Aerobic and Anaerobic Combo up to 3 aerobic susceptibilities for 1 specimen (Fixed price; must select at submission) |
Bacteriology | $130.00 |
| Aerobic Bacterial Culture with up to 3 susceptibilities for 1 specimen (Fixed price; must select at submission) |
Bacteriology | $125.00 |
| Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test | Bacteriology | $34.00 |
| Aspartate aminotransferase | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Aspergillus AGID | Serology | $21.00 |
| Baermann Sedimentation | Clinical Pathology | $24.00 |
| Bicarbonate | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Bile Post | Clinical Pathology | $27.00 |
| Bile Pre or Single | Clinical Pathology | $27.00 |
| Bilirubin, Direct | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Bilirubin, total | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Biopsy | Anatomic Pathology | $84.00 |
| Blastomyces AGID | Serology | $21.00 |
| Blastomyces and Histoplasma AGID | Serology | $37.00 |
| Blood Culture | Bacteriology | $45.00 |
| Blood Parasite Exam | Clinical Pathology | $23.00 |
| Blood Urea Nitrogen | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Bone Marrow Aspirate | Clinical Pathology | $55.00 |
| Bone Marrow Core Biopsy Evaluation | Clinical Pathology | $84.00 |
| Borrelia burgdorferi IFA | Serology | $26.00 |
| Borrelia burgdorferi PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Bronchoalveolar Lavage Analysis | Clinical Pathology | $50.00 |
| Buffy Coat | Clinical Pathology | $45.00 |
| Calcium Tox | Toxicology | $30.00 |
| Calcium Urine | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Calcium | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| CBC Equine (includes slide review and fibrinogen) | Clinical Pathology | $37.00 |
| CBC Large Animal (includes slide review and fibrinogen) | Clinical Pathology | $37.00 |
| Chloride Urine | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Chloride | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Cholesterol | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Coagulation Panel 2 plus Fibinogen | Clinical Pathology | $105.00 |
| Coagulation Panel 1 | Clinical Pathology | $82.00 |
| Coccidioides immitis AGID | Serology | $21.00 |
| Coggins Test ELISA | Serology | $9.00 |
| Comprehensive Blood Smear Exam | Clinical Pathology | $45.00 |
| Contagious Equine Metritis Culture | Bacteriology | $35.00 |
| Copper | Toxicology | $30.00 |
| Cortisol | Clinical Pathology | $29.00 |
| Cosmetic Necropsy | Anatomic Pathology | $225.00 |
| Creatine Kinase | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Creatinine | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Creatinine-Urine | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Cryptococcus neoformans Antibody Tube Agglutination | Serology | $21.00 |
| Cryptococcus neoformans Antigen Latex Agglutination | Serology | $22.00 |
| Cryptosporidia Exam | Clinical Pathology | $21.00 |
| CSF Analysis | Clinical Pathology | $60.00 |
| Cyanide (Prussic Acid) | Toxicology | $20.00 |
| Cytological Examination | Clinical Pathology | $45.00 |
| D-Dimer | Clinical Pathology | $49.00 |
| Dexamethasone Suppression Test 2 samples | Clinical Pathology | $55.00 |
| Dexamethasone Suppression Test 3 samples | Clinical Pathology | $76.00 |
| Electrolyte and Mineral Profile | Clinical Pathology | $20.00 |
| Electron Microscopy Pool of 5 submitted together – $250.00 |
Virology | $70.00 |
| Endogenous ACTH | Clinical Pathology | $49.00 |
| Equine Enteric Panel PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $103.00 |
| Equine Enteric Panel PLUS PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $142.00 |
| Equine Herpes 1 and 4 PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $47.00 |
| Equine Herpesvirus 1 Genotyping PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $85.00 |
| Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) ELISA | Serology | $9.00 |
| Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) AGID | Serology | $9.50 |
| Equine Maxi Panel | Clinical Pathology | $42.00 |
| Equine Mini Panel | Clinical Pathology | $29.00 |
| Equine Neurological Panel PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $89.00 |
| Equine Respiratory Panel | Molecular Diagnostics | $80.00 |
| Equine Rhinopneumonitis SN | Serology | $16.00 |
| Equine Viral Arteritis SN | Serology | $21.00 |
| Fecal Flotation | Clinical Pathology | $18.00 |
| Fibrinogen Automated | Clinical Pathology | $33.00 |
| Fibrinogen Heat Precipitation Method | Clinical Pathology | $12.00 |
| Foal IgG Snap Test | Clinical Pathology | $38.00 |
| Fungal Culture – Systemic | Bacteriology | $31.00 |
| Gamma Glutamyltransferase | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| GC MS Screen | Toxicology | $153.00 |
| GLDH | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Glucose Urine | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Glucose | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Gross Necropsy Only (One animal, 50% off for each additional animal, up to three) | Anatomic Pathology | $88.00 |
| Histoplasma capsulatum AGID | Serology | $21.00 |
| ICP-OES (Metals and Metalloids in Liver and Kidney) | Toxicology | $45.00 |
| ICP-OES (Metals in Serum and Plasma) | Toxicology | $45.00 |
| ICP-OES (Selenium in Serum and Plasma) | Toxicology | $45.00 |
| Immunohistochemistry | Anatomic Pathology | $40.00 |
| Influenza A PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Insulin Glucose | Clinical Pathology | $36.00 |
| Iron | Toxicology | $30.00 |
| Joint Aspirate Pleural Fluid Peritoneal Fluid Culture | Bacteriology | $45.00 |
| Large Animal Liver Profile | Clinical Pathology | $27.00 |
| Large Animal Spinal Exam | Anatomic Pathology | $100.00 |
| Lawsonia intracellularis PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $39.00 |
| Lead in Tissue | Toxicology | $30.00 |
| Lead in Whole Blood | Toxicology | $30.00 |
| Leptospirosis 6 Serovars Titer MAT | Serology | $18.00 |
| Leptospira spp PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Magnesium Tox | Toxicology | $30.00 |
| Magnesium | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Fresh and Fixed Tissue Exam plus Lab Tests | Anatomic Pathology | $181.00 |
| Mastitis Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test (up to 2 organisms) | Bacteriology | $33.50 |
| Microscopic Examination of Specimen | Bacteriology | $16.00 |
| Fecal Egg Count (10+) $17.25 each |
Clinical Pathology | $20.00 |
| Multiple Lymph Node Cytology | Clinical Pathology | $67.50 |
| Multiple Synovial Cytology | Clinical Pathology | $67.50 |
| Necropsy with Histopathology (One animal, 50% off for each additional animal, up to three) |
Anatomic Pathology | $110.00 |
| Necropsy with Histopathology and Lab Tests for One-Organ (One animal, 50% off each additional animal, up to three) |
Anatomic Pathology | $200.00 |
| Neorickettsia risticii PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Nitrate in Ocular Fluid | Toxicology | $42.00 |
| Occult Blood | Clinical Pathology | $15.00 |
| Ophthalmology Antimicrobial Susceptibility Panel – up to 2 organisms | Bacteriology | $37.00 |
| Osmolality (measured) Urine | Clinical Pathology | $21.00 |
| Osmolality measured | Clinical Pathology | $22.00 |
| Peritoneal, Pleural, Pericardial Fluid Analysis | Clinical Pathology | $55.00 |
| pH of Rumen Contents | Toxicology | $13.00 |
| Phenobarbital Level | Clinical Pathology | $30.00 |
| Phosphorus Urine | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Phosphorus, inorganic | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Poisonous Plant and Animal Identification | Toxicology | $27.00 |
| Potassium Urine | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Potassium | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Potomac Horse Fever PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Progesterone | Clinical Pathology | $21.00 |
| Protein Creatinine Ratio Urine | Clinical Pathology | $24.00 |
| Protein, Total | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Prothrombin Time | Clinical Pathology | $27.00 |
| Rabies Test | Anatomic Pathology | $37.00 |
| Renal Panel | Clinical Pathology | $27.00 |
| Rotavirus Group A PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Salmonella Culture | Bacteriology | $31.00 |
| Salmonella PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $38.00 |
| Sample Preparation | Bacteriology | $25.00 |
| Sodium (urine) | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Sodium | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Streptococcus equi subsp. equi PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Synovial Fluid Analysis | Clinical Pathology | $55.00 |
| Tick Panel IgG IFA | Serology | $86.50 |
| Tick Panel PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $99.00 |
| Toxoplasma gondii PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Triglyceride | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Urea nitrogen Urine | Clinical Pathology | $14.00 |
| Uric Acid | Clinical Pathology | $11.00 |
| Urinalysis Complete | Clinical Pathology | $26.00 |
| Vesicular Stomatitis Indiana Virus | Serology | $15.00 |
| Vesicular Stomatitis New Jersey Virus | Serology | $15.00 |
| Virus Isolation | Virology | $40.00 |
| Vitamin E | Toxicology | $30.00 |
| West Nile Virus IgM ELISA | Serology | $30.00 |
| West Nile Virus PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | $45.00 |
| Yeast Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test | Bacteriology | $61.00 |
| Zinc | Toxicology | $30.00 |
Tests: A-B | C-E | F-M | N-S | T-Z
Click on test name for details.
| Test Name | Section | Species | Price |
| CAE and OPP Detection (Small Ruminant Lentivirus) ELISA (10+) $8.25 each/ (30+) $7.50 each |
Serology | Caprine, Ovine | $12.00 |
| Calcium Tox | Toxicology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $30.00 |
| Calcium – Urine | Clinical Pathology | Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $14.00 |
| Calcium | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $11.00 |
| Canine Adenovirus type 2 PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Canine | $45.00 |
| Canine Coronavirus PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Canine | $45.00 |
| Canine Enteric Panel PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Canine | $105.00 |
| Canine Distemper IgG IFA | Serology | Canine | $27.00 |
| Canine Distemper IgM IFA | Serology | Canine | $27.00 |
| Canine Distempter/ Parvo Titer ELISA | Serology | Canine | $26.00 |
| Canine Distemper Virus PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Canine | $45.00 |
| Canine Herpesvirus PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Canine | $45.00 |
| Canine Parvovirus IgG IFA | Serology | Canine | $26.00 |
| Canine Parvovirus IgM IFA | Serology | Canine | $26.00 |
| Canine Respiratory Panel PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Canine | $97.00 |
| CBC Equine | Clinical Pathology | Equine | $37.00 |
| CBC Large Animal (includes slide review and fibrinogen) | Clinical Pathology | Equine, Ruminant | $37.00 |
| CBC Small Animal (includes retic and slide review) | Clinical Pathology | Canine, Feline | $33.00 |
| Chlamydia/Chlamydophila PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Feline, Ruminant | $45.00 |
| Chloride – Urine | Clinical Pathology | Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $14.00 |
| Chloride | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $11.00 |
| Cholesterol | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $11.00 |
| Chronic Wasting Disease ELISA | Serology | Cervid | $24.00 |
| Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) Immunohistochemistry (IHC) (Both Sites) |
Anatomic Pathology | Cervid | $45.00 |
| Coagulation Panel 2 + Fibrinogen | Clinical Pathology | Canine, Equine, Feline | $105.00 |
| Coagulation Panel 1 | Clinical Pathology | Canine, Equine, Feline | $82.00 |
| Coccidioides immitis AGID | Serology | Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $21.00 |
| Coggins Test ELISA | Serology | Equine | $9.00 |
| Comprehensive Blood Smear Exam | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $45.00 |
| Contagious Equine Metritis Culture | Bacteriology | Equine | $35.00 |
| Coombs Test Direct | Clinical Pathology | Canine | $40.00 |
| Copper | Toxicology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $30.00 |
| Cortisol | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $29.00 |
| Cosmetic Necropsy | Anatomic Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $225.00 |
| Creatine Kinase | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $11.00 |
| Creatinine | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $11.00 |
| Creatinine (Creat)- Urine | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $14.00 |
| Cryptococcus neoformans Antibody Tube Agglutination | Serology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Ruminant | $21.00 |
| Cryptococcus neoformans Antigen Latex Agglutination | Serology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Ruminant | $22.00 |
| Cryptosporidia Exam | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $21.00 |
| Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia FA | Serology | Canine, Feline, Ruminant | $28.00 |
| CSF Analysis | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $60.00 |
| Cyanide (Prussic Acid) | Toxicology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $20.00 |
| Cytological Examination | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $45.00 |
| D-Dimer | Clinical Pathology | Canine, Equine, Feline | $49.00 |
| Dexamethasone Suppression Test (2 samples) |
Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $55.00 |
| Dexamethasone Suppression Test (3 samples) |
Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $76.00 |
| Ehrlichia canis IFA | Serology | Canine | $29.00 |
| Ehrlichia spp PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Canine | $39.00 |
| Electrolyte and Mineral Profile | Clinical Pathology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $20.00 |
| Electron Microscopy Pool of 5 submitted together – $250.00 |
Virology | Avian, Canine, Equine, Feline, Porcine, Ruminant | $70.00 |
| Endogenous ACTH | Clinical Pathology | Equine | $49.00 |
| Enteric Screen | Bacteriology | Canine, Porcine, Ruminant | $62.00 |
| Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus AGID (10+) $10.00 each / (50+) $7.50 each |
Serology | Ruminant | $12.50 |
| Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus PCR (3+) $37.00 each / (10+) $35.00 each |
Molecular Diagnostics | Ruminant | $39.00 |
| Equine Enteric Panel PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Equine | $103.00 |
| Equine Enteric Panel PLUS PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Equine | $142.00 |
| Equine Herpesvirus 1 Genotyping PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Equine | $85.00 |
| Equine Herpes 1 and 4 PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Equine | $47.00 |
| Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) ELISA | Serology | Equine | $9.00 |
| Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) AGID | Serology | Equine | $9.50 |
| Equine Maxi Panel | Clinical Pathology | Equine | $42.00 |
| Equine Mini Panel | Clinical Pathology | Equine | $29.00 |
| Equine Neurological Panel PCR | Molecular Diagnostics | Equine | $89.00 |
| Equine Rhinopneumonitis SN | Serology | Equine | $16.00 |
| Equine Viral Arteritis SN | Serology | Equine | $21.00 |
| Ergot Alkaoids in Feedstuff (10+) $100.00 each |
Toxicology | $120.00 | |
| Ergot Fescue Alkaloids in Feedstuff (10+) $120.00 each |
Toxicology | $150.00 |
Histopathology/Biopsy Changes:
Disposal Changes (with necropsy only):
Tests Added:
Tests Discontinued:
If you have any questions about our new fee guide, please feel free to call the laboratory at 573-882-6811. We strive to provide high quality diagnostics at a reasonable price.
Using histopathology to definitively diagnose canine bone lesions is very important, since benign and neoplastic osteodestructive processes can be indistinguishable on radiographs and diagnosis greatly affects the treatment regimen. However, representative sampling of the lesion by bone biopsies (e.g., Jamshidi bone needle, Michele trephine) can be quite challenging. The center of the lesion is often necrotic, while the edges may simply be reactive changes of bone and periosteum. Sometimes, despite everyone’s best efforts, the tissue sampled is non-diagnostic. A retrospective study of VMDL cases demonstrates that neoplastic changes were not observed in 20 out of 61 (33 percent) primary bone tumor cases in dogs at the first bone-core biopsy attempt (Kuroki et al. Accuracy of bone-core biopsy for diagnosis of primary bone tumors in dogs. 2012 ACVP and ASVCP annual meeting. Paper #D-47). While it’s a good idea to prepare your clients for the possibility of an unsuccessful diagnosis, here are a few things you can do to improve your chances of getting a definitive diagnosis:
Possible complications associated with bone-core biopsies include bone fracture, nerve or blood vessel damage and infection. If an amputation is performed, clinicians may submit the entire fresh limb to the VMDL for adequate sampling and histopathology examination. Please feel free to call the laboratory with questions regarding bone biopsy or whole limb submission.
By: Rosalie Ierardi, DVM
By now, many of you have heard about a recent cluster of bacillary hemoglobinuria cases in north-central Missouri. At least seven cattle between December 2020 and May 2021 met the criteria of hemoglobinuria, hepatic necrosis, and identification of Clostridium novyi/Clostridium haemolyticum in the liver lesions. In five of these cases, deer flukes and/or fluke eggs were identified in the liver. Seven cattle may not sound like much, until one considers that during the previous decade (2010-2020) only three suspected cases of clostridial hepatitis were received by the VMDL. We are continuing to investigate this group of cases, and diagnostic submissions are highly encouraged.
In any discussion of bacillary hemoglobinuria, it’s worthwhile to consider two closely related conditions with a very similar pathogenesis: bacillary hemoglobinuria, “red water disease” versus infectious necrotic hepatitis, “black disease”.
Bacillary hemoglobinuria (BH) is caused by Clostridium haemolyticum, which produces a toxin that causes intravascular hemolysis and acute hepatic necrosis. The hemolysis causes severe anemia, and the disease is almost invariably fatal.
Sudden death is frequent. Clinical signs include depression, anorexia and fever. Hemoglobinuria is the hallmark. At necropsy, the most consistent and characteristic lesion is a focally extensive area of hepatic necrosis, often surrounded by a dark red halo.
Infectious necrotic hepatitis (INH) is a similar condition which occurs commonly in sheep, occasionally in cattle, and rarely in horses. INH is caused by Clostridium novyi type B. Liver lesions are fairly similar to those in BH, but hemoglobinuria is absent. Like BH, this disease is nearly always fatal.
Both C. haemolyticum and C. novyi type B live in soil as highly resistant spores. Once ingested by grazing animals, spores can lay dormant in the liver for months. Disease occurs only when liver injury creates the anaerobic conditions required for bacterial growth. This is typically attributed to migration of Fasciola hepatica (common liver fluke), but bacillary hemoglobinuria is also reported in cattle without evidence of liver flukes. While Fasciola hepatica is thought to be the most common predisposing factor for BH, this species is seldom reported in Missouri. Missouri cattle are more likely to be infected with Fascioloides magna, the deer fluke. The relationship between F. magna and BH is less thoroughly studied.
F. hepatica and F. magna have similar and intricate life cycles. Development of the flukes depends on availability of snail intermediate hosts, a moist environment, and temperatures above 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Fluke eggs are deposited in the feces of cattle and sheep (F. hepatica) or deer (F. magna). Eggs hatch and develop through several life stages, mostly within snails, until they mature into the infective larval stage known as metacercariae. Metacercariae encyst on vegetation, awaiting ingestion by the mammalian host. In favorable conditions, eggs and/or metacercariae can survive on pastures for months.
Once ingested, F. hepatica migrates to the liver and eventually settles in the bile ducts, where its eggs are passed into the feces. In the case of F. magna, cattle and sheep are dead-end hosts. The flukes wander aimlessly in the liver and cause considerable damage until they are walled off with fibrous connective tissue by the host. The eggs never make it into the feces.
When examining a bovine carcass with hemoglobinuria and/or icterus, examine the liver carefully. Necrotic lesions are sometimes subtle. Migration tracts of F. magna within the liver typically contain black pigment. It’s best to submit multiple small formalin-fixed samples for histopathology and several large fresh samples for bacterial culture. Laboratory confirmation can be challenging, as C. haemolyticum and C. novyi type B are difficult to isolate. Diagnosis is supported by fluorescent antibody testing (FAT), which is routinely performed at the VMDL. Ideally, carcasses should be burned, buried, or removed from the premises to reduce contamination of soil.
Vaccination is the best way to protect cattle from BH and INH. To prevent bacillary hemoglobinuria, the vaccine must be labeled for protection against C. haemolyticum. Most “seven-way” multivalent vaccines do not protect against BH, but C. haemolyticum is usually included in eight-way or nine-way products. Duration of immunity is only about six months; in especially high-risk situations, biannual vaccination may be warranted. Although avoidance of liver flukes is an attractive target for disease control, this is often an impractical approach.
901 E. Campus Loop
Columbia, MO 65211
